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<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" width="100%" class="forumline"> <tr> <th class="thCornerL" width="22%" height="26">Autor</th> <th class="thCornerR">Wiadomość</th> </tr> <tr> <td width="22%" align="left" valign="top" class="row1"><span class="name"><a name=""></a><b>taoiu1pqda</b></span></td> <td class="row1" height="28" valign="top"><table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="100%"><img src="http://picsrv.fora.pl/subSilver/images/icon_minipost.gif" width="12" height="9" alt="Post" title="Post" border="0" /><span class="postdetails">Wysłany: Pią 13:18, 11 Kwi 2014<span class="gen"> </span> Temat postu: </span></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><hr /></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><span class="postbody">white-collar Li took a "preferential wind Singles Day", greatly satisfied their consumption demand. Like Xiao Li who meet the eye everywhere in the online shopping festival. 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This happens when you push yourself too hard or when you forget to use proper time management skills.e. killing skinning and preparing the meat) was proposed as a likely means of transmission Following the Virus <br />The race is on now to comprehend how and when these viruses made their disastrous leap and what paths they are currently traveling Ask yourself this: If SIVcpz made the leap from chimp to human what's to stop other viruses from rearing their ugly heads Think about the impact of emerging retroviruses with a similar latency period and a more virulent clinical manifestation Combine that possibility with the increased prevalence of "bare-backing" crystal-methamphetamine use and HIV and hepatitis C co-infection along with a shift in the demographics of HIV to an underserved minority community Emerging infections will not go away They are a major threat to global health Chris Fritzen represented AIDS Project Los Angeles at the recent 40th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy He is a corporate development officer at APLA and can be reached by calling (323) 993-1565 or by e-mail at cfritzen@APLAorg JANUARY 2001 <br />Disease and History <br />Must the Past Be Prologue <br />By Peter Lewis Allen <br />Some diseases are endemic -- constantly present in a population like a low-level fever Others are epidemic: they come and go over time Because of this characteristic they are perceived as events with observable beginnings and ends Because they can cause widespread and unexpected death they often cause great fear And with fear they attract speculation: people wonder about where they come from and why they happen Without this speculation we would never have come to our current state of knowledge about the nature of infection and the principles of public health But often the same questioning has led to destructive results since for thousands of years people have attributed epidemics to divine causes and to unpopular social groups -- and even to the sufferers themselves This social response to medicine has changed far less over the years than medical science As a result studying epidemics of the past can illuminate how society government and the medical establishment have responded to much more recent diseases such as AIDS Infection depends on relationships Without organisms (including people) that complete the chain of transmission the microorganisms that cause disease would not be able to reproduce Without sizeable host populations diseases would die out quickly blowing into oblivion like seeds of grass scattered on dry rock When infectious diseases arrive in denser societies however they can grow to catastrophic size Some epidemics have left a particularly deep impression in human memory whether because of their ferocious destruction or because of the ways in which they have been understood Often diseases have been seen as punishments as manifestations of the will of God against those who have sinned When this occurs -- as it has over and over again in history -- the physical disease is accompanied by a social plague as well one which can cause great suffering of its own The two most memorable diseases of the European Middle Ages were plague and leprosy Leprosy was endemic causing a slow and horrifying degeneration of the body Plague on the other hand was a rapid murderer of millions Caused by a bacillus plague is transmitted by fleas that often infest rats and other rodents Its most common symptoms include fever severe headaches delirium prostration and "buboes" extreme and painful swellings of the lymph nodes in the armpits and groin Typically people infected with plague die within eight days The "Black Death" <br />The most famous European outbreak of plague was called the "Black Death" Presumed to have begun in Central Asia it was carried by ship-borne rats to Europe and arrived in Milan in 1348 Within three years the entire European world was devastated In some areas two-thirds to three-quarters of the population died -- perhaps as many as 25 million in all This mortality tore society apart The Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio wrote (in an early English translation) that "brother forsook brother uncle nephew and sister brother and oftentimes wife husband Nay (what is yet more extraordinary and well nigh incredible) fathers and mothers refused to visit or tend their very children as [if] they had not been theirs" People explained the Black Death in many ways -- almost all of them wrong One common and insidious theory was that Jews had caused the plague by poisoning the wells from which urban populations drew their water In response to this popular view the officials of Basel Switzerland carried out the publicís desire for retribution by enclosing all the Jews in the city in a wooden structure and burning them to death Plague remained a threat to Europe until the rats that carried the infected fleas were displaced by a different less hospitable breed Leprosy: "Unclean Unclean" <br />Leprosy affected victims and communities in a different but equally frightening way Far less infectious than plague leprosy is caused by a bacterium (mycobacterium leprae) that eats through nerve endings blood vessels ligaments skin tissue and even bone In the process the hostís fingers and toes face and voice become deformed in ways that often horrify those who behold them Societies have often taken these deformations as the visible signs of sin and have therefore expelled lepers from their midst Religious horror of leprosy extends far back in the Judeo-Christian tradition In Leviticus for example the Bible commands that the leper must shout out "Unclean unclean"and solemnly condemns him to a life of utter solitude: "He shall dwell alone; without the camp shall his habitation be" Following this path medieval Christianity also excluded the leper from society and viewed him or her as a person dead to the world Thus a medieval ritual required the leper to stand in an open grave while a priest pronounced this stern expulsion: "I forbid you ever to enter the church or monastery fair mill market-place or company of persons ever to leave your house without your leperís costume ever to touch children or give them anything" Sometimes this living death was packaged with the promise of speedy redemption in the life to come but leprosy still remained powerfully and disturbingly tied to sin Poxes: Syphilis and Small Pox <br />If leprosy and plague were the most striking diseases of the Middle Ages they found jarring echoes in smallpox and syphilis two epidemics of the Renaissance While both smallpox and syphilis had existed before this time it may have been the social developments of the era -- the Age of Exploration -- that catapulted them into international prominence Smallpox a disease of Europe and Asia seems to have been unheard of in the Americas until European explorers landed there in the fifteenth century It devastated the New World killing as much as half the population Some historians in fact have argued that it was smallpox not the military prowess of the conquistadores that allowed the conquest of the Americas Meanwhile syphilis was first recorded in Europe in 1493 immediately after Columbus and his sailors returned to Spain (Medical historians still argue about whether the disease was imported from America or whether the timing was simply a coincidence) Syphilis -- far more virulent and loathsome then than now: it was often called simply the Pox -- was the subject of intense and wide-ranging blame The Russians called it the "Polish disease"; the Poles ascribed it to the Germans To the Germans the English and the Italians meanwhile it was the morbus gallicus the French disease The French however laid the responsibility on the Neapolitans the Dutch and Portuguese on the Spanish and Japan on the Portuguese Regardless of its geographical origin syphilis was pretty clearly tied to sex both because it was common among groups of famously easy virtue (prostitutes and soldiers) and because its abscesses and rubbery tumors often first turned up on the genitals As a result the disease attracted a harsh opprobrium The Spanish bishop Gaspare Torella who was also physician to the papal court publicly asked whether syphilitics even deserved to be cured "Ought one to work against the will of God"he asked"who has punished them by the very means in which they had sinned" Picking up the taint of leprosy (with which it was often associated -- ancient deserted leper houses were sometimes turned into syphilis wards) syphilis was a magnet for horror embarrassment and blame There were other epidemics Smallpox lashed Europe in a pandemic in 1614 Plague devastated London in 1665 and Marseilles in 1720; yellow fever terrorized Philadelphia the new American capital in 1793 These diseases too were often seen as punishment for sin of one kind or another -- even the "sin" of poverty One seventeenth-century English writer voiced the disdain and disgust of the upper classes when he described bubonic plague as "a broom in the hands of the Almighty with which he sweepeth the most nasty and uncomely corners of the universe" Modern Scourges: Cholera and Tuberculosis <br />The victims of cholera received the same cold shoulder in its four nineteenth-century pandemics One of these tidal waves spread over most of the globe beginning in India in 1826 and spreading over the next six years to Russia Persia (now Iran) Europe Britain and North America Like plague cholera is easily transmitted among people living under unsanitary conditions: it is spread when food and water are contaminated with feces which happened far too often in an era when indoor plumbing was a luxury enjoyed only by a few Those afflicted suffer from severe cramps vomiting fever dehydration and sudden death; they can die within a day And since cholera flourished among the ill-fed and ill-housed the New York Times in 1866 described 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